Roman Monographs - Obelisks (part I)

Roman emperors found obelisks particularly fit for decorating circuses, where they were usually stood in the middle of the central platform (spina) that marked the inner boundary of the ring-shaped racing track. They were also used for the decoration of temples (especially the shorter ones), as in Egypt, or to make mausoleums (monumental tombs) look more grand: the one of emperor Octavianus Augustus had two of them flanking its entrance.

Obelisks have rather standard features: they are carved from a single block of stone (monolyths), more often red granite; the shaft is a regular prysm with a square base, slightly tapered towards the upper part, ending with a short pyramidal top, the pyramidion.

Vatican obelisk: three hills
and an 8-pointed star, device
of pope Sixtus V (1585-1590)

In Egypt, no special structure was added on top of the pyramidion, which was instead covered with electrum, an alloy of silver and gold, so that it would reflect the rays of the sun all around. The ones taken to Rome, instead, were usually fitted with a bronze globe and a pinnacle (right).
The custom of placing an extra element above the obelisks was maintained during the Renaissance and the following ages; as the surviving spires were unearthed, restored and moved to other locations within the city, the popes who sponsored the works usually had the Christian cross and their own heraldic devices added to the top of the monument (left), sometimes having to remove the ancient Roman sphere, if still present. Sixtus V (1585-1590) is the pope who first did so, having four out of Rome's thirteen ancient spires moved to their present location, where for a long time they acted as important landmarks (see the following pictures).

the globe removed from one
of Rome's obelisks, now kept
in the Capitoline Museums

two famous etchings that feature the location in Rome of the seven main churches traditionally visited by pilgrims; the one on the left was made for the
Jubilee Year of 1575; the one on the right, dated 1589, is almost identical, except for the presence of the four tall obelisks that Sixtus V had meanwhile set into place
Although the devices found atop of the obelisks are often rather similar, the shape of these additionale elements is never perfectly identical (with only one exception), as the close-up details shown in these pages clearly show. Two variants known are also the one with the French royal fleur-de-lys device on the obelisk standing by Trinità dei Monti (a French church in Rome) and the one with a five-pointed star above the small spire near Termini Station.

But the most important features in which the obelisks differ are the age of the monument, its size (and weight), the presence or absence of hieroglyphs along the shaft and, most of all, the story behind them.

Before introducing each obelisk individually, a curious etymological note is that the word obelisk comes from the Greek οβελος (obelos = "spit, skewer"), whose diminutive is οβελιςκος (obeliskos): to the first Westerners who saw them, these mighty monuments recalled the shape of a "small skewer"!

the obelisk by St.John's basilica; the entrance to the transept of the church is seen in the background	It is made of red granite, and measures 32.18 metres (105.5 feet), reaching 45.70 metres (about 150 feet) with the base; its weight is 230 tons. It originally stood in front of the Temple of Amon, in Thebes (or Karnak, in Egyptian), where pharaoh Tuthmosis III had it carved in the 15th century BC. Over 1,700 years later, in the early 4th century AD, Constantine the Great had the monument moved to Alexandria, in the north of the country, which after the Roman conquest, had grown into the most important Egyptian city. In 357 emperor Constans I, the son and successor of Constantine the Great, wanted it as a decoration for the Circus Maximus, the largest chariot racing stadium of the city; he therefore had a special ship made in order to take the monument to Rome.	two cartouches of Tuthmosis III along the shaft (bottom and left)

Here the top of the monument was provided with the bronze globe, according to the ancient Roman custom. It was stricken by lightning, though, and unlike any other obelisk in Rome, it was replaced, with an element shaped ad a flame, cast in polished bronze, as well, which looked as if it was burning when it reflected the sunlight. What happened to it is unclear; by the time of the first invasions by the Goths (526), it may have already gone lost.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the obelisk lay broken in three large pieces in the large oval area, no longer used for races. In time, it collapsed and broke into pieces, ending up buried. When it rained, the sloping sides of the Circus Maximus area caused the water to collect, and turn the area into a huge swampy field.

the family device of Sixtus V: a star, three hills and a lion (...and an extra seagull perching above)	In the late 1500s, the obelisk's fragments were found thanks to Michele Mercati, a botanist, a geologist and a physician who was also fond of archaeology; he convinced pope Sixtus V to sponsor the difficult search in the muddy field. Once the fragments were found, and the obelisk restored, the latter was then stood in its present location, in place of the famous bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius that was moved to Capitolium Hill. The same pope's devices were then added to the top of the monument: an eight-pointed star, three hills and a lion with a raised paw (repeated on each corner). The inscriptions on the four sides of the base trace, in short, the history of the obelisk, mentioning the 'sacrilegous dedication' by the pharaoh to the god Sun, its removal to Alexandria by Constantine, and its transfer to Rome ('by means of a ship with three hundred rowers') by his son Constans. The fourth side, in remembering that Costantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, was baptized in the Lateran by pope Sylvester I (314-335), mistakes the historical truth.	"Costantine, winner thanks to the Cross, baptized here by Saint Sylvester, spread the glory of the Cross"

In fact, this belief sprang from several medieval legends about this emperor. As a matter of fact, Costantine remained a pagan for his entire life, yet showing himself lenient with the Christian religion, after his mother's conversion (St.Helen). He was baptized very late, in 367, just before his death.

Cavalier Domenico Fontana, architect, erected [this obelisk]	Sixtus V dedicated the obelisk to the most undefeated Cross, whose fragments had been brought to Rome from the Holy Land by Constantine's mother, and to which another ancient basilica, standing not far from the Lateran, is also dedicated.

On the eastern side of the base, a short and sober inscription remembers the architect who performed the erection of this monument, as well as that of other obelisks under the reign of Sixtus V: Domenico Fontana.

this side of the base tells how the obelisk was
dragged in pieces from the Circus Maximus' mud,
moved here, accurately restored and dedicated
by Sixtus V to the most undefeated Cross

. · 2 · .

The one in Piazza del Popolo, known as Flaminian obelisk after the ancient Flaminian way (which starts from an adjacent square), is the second oldest in Rome.
It is 24 metres (78.5 feet) tall, but with the base it reaches 34 metres (111 feet).

hypothetical reconstruction of the Circus Maximus in an old etching

The monument comes from Heliopolis, where it stood before the Temple of the Sun; its hieroglyphs show the name of pharaoh Ramses II and his son Merneptah (or Merenptah, 13th century BC).

aerial view of the Flaminian obelisk

Also this spire was taken to Rome as a decorative element for the Circus Maximus, but much earlier than the previous one, in AD 10, under Rome's first emperor, Octavianus Augustus.

the top element (left) and the inscription on the base that tells how pope Sixtus V
restored the obelisk, which had been dedicated to the Sun by Octavianus Augustus
and lay in pieces in the Circus Maximus, and moved it here in 1589

In time, the fragments of both obelisks were buried under several metres of mud, which developed during the Middle Ages, after the circus had fallen into a state of abandonment, and was even crossed by a small water channel (known as Acqua Mariana, or marrana).

As the previous obelisk, also this one was discovered by the late 1500s, when the site of the Circus Maximus was investigated by pope Sixtus V. The fragments were then restored and assembled, and moved to their present location with great effort, due to its considerable size.
Also this obelisk bears two of the pope's devices, namely the star and the hills, but not the lions; four fountains in the shape of lions, though, were added to the monument in 1823 by architect Valadier, replacing the 16th century fountain that had stood in front of the obelisk since the time it had been set there (see Fountains part III, page 2).

. · 3 · .

the Vatican obelisk in St.Peter's Square, with the basilica at the back		Also in St.Peter Square stands an Egyptian spire, without hieroglyphs, which used to be Rome's most famous obelisk during the early centuries. It measures 25.5 metres (83 feet) , although the stand and the bronze element on the top add about 12 metres to its overall height, making it look much taller. fresco in the Vatican Library (Vatican Museums) showing how the obelisk was raised; note the great number of workers, and the unfinished basilica of St.Peter's on the left

It comes from Heliopolis. Emperor Caligula had it brought here in AD 37, as a decoration for the arena for horse races he was building by the Vatican Hill; having been finished a few years later by his successor, it was known as the Circus of Nero.
Lacking hieroglyphs, the dating of this obelisk is difficult. In his Histories, Herodotus (4th century BC) tells that pharaoh Pheros erected an obelisk in Heliopolis as a token of gratitude for having recovered from blindness. Unfortunately, the famous historian used to refer to pharaohs with Greek names, and despite he informs us that Pheros was the son of Sesostris (who might be Senusret III, 1878–1860 BC), Pheros has never been identified in the 'official' lists of Egyptian monerchs, also because very likely this was but the Greek corruption of the generic term "pharaoh".
Pliny instead wrote that this obelisk was taken to Rome by Caligola, and it matched a similar one, which the same pharaoh was credited for, but which broke in the attempt of removing it.

Meanwhile, in the 4th century emperor Constantine founded the first basilica of St.Peter by Nero's arena, and for a very long time, also after the circus had collapsed, the obelisk stood on the left side of Constantine's church.

Known as the aguglia (spire) over the Middle Ages, this was one of Rome's legendary features because of a bronze globe at the top, which the people believed to contain the ashes of Julius Caesar. The legend probably sprung from an ancient dedication, carved by the base of the obelisk, in which the name of the famous personage can be read. The dedication, badly worn, is today incomplete, and barely visible only in the hours before sunset, when the grazing sunlight makes the faint inscription appear (see picture below). By the time St.Peter's basilica was rebuilt, during the works pope Sixtus V had the obelisk moved to the center of the square (1586); this proved a difficult job for the renowned architect Giovanni Fontana, whose 900 workers took almost six months to fulfil the task. The spire was stood on a tall base, resting on four couples of bronze lions; in fact, this animal was the main heraldic device in the pope's coat of arms. the legendary globe, now in the Capitoline Museums

Known as the aguglia (spire) over the Middle Ages, this was one of Rome's legendary features because of a bronze globe at the top, which the people believed to contain the ashes of Julius Caesar. The legend probably sprung from an ancient dedication, carved by the base of the obelisk, in which the name of the famous personage can be read. The dedication, badly worn, is today incomplete, and barely visible only in the hours before sunset, when the grazing sunlight makes the faint inscription appear (see picture below).

By the time St.Peter's basilica was rebuilt, during the works pope Sixtus V had the obelisk moved to the center of the square (1586); this proved a difficult job for the renowned architect Giovanni Fontana, whose 900 workers took almost six months to fulfil the task. The spire was stood on a tall base, resting on four couples of bronze lions; in fact, this animal was the main heraldic device in the pope's coat of arms.

the legendary globe,
now in the Capitoline Museums

(below left) the inscription in which Sixtus V claims to have purified the Vatican obelisk from impure superstition
by means of the invincible Cross; (below centre) the lions on which the obelisk rests and the eagles;
(right) Nero's Circus, in a map of ancient Rome printed in 1561, when the globe (detail) was still on the obelisk.

the barely readable inscription that mentions 'god Caesar'	The pope, whose aversion for popular beliefs was famous (see Legendary Rome, page 7), decided to put an end to this "impure superstition", as a Latin inscription on one side of the tall base says, and had the globe removed. It was then examined by Fontana, who observed that it had been cast as a single piece, and was seamless; his conclusion was that nothing could have been placed inside. In this way the old legend was disproven.

the barely readable inscription that mentions 'god Caesar'

The pope, whose aversion for popular beliefs was famous (see Legendary Rome, page 7), decided to put an end to this "impure superstition", as a Latin inscription on one side of the tall base says, and had the globe removed. It was then examined by Fontana, who observed that it had been cast as a single piece, and was seamless; his conclusion was that nothing could have been placed inside. In this way the old legend was disproven.

The top of the spire was then fitted with a cross resting over a star and three hills, devices from the coat of arms of Sixtus V. A small fragment from the remains of the Holy Cross was enclosed in the bronze element, probably to 'counterbalance' the old belief about Caesar's ashes. In 1713 pope Innocent XIII too had his own family device, a crowned eagle, added to the base of the monument. In 1817 the obelisk was also turned into a sun-dial: the floor on the right (northern) side of the square was inlaid with a thin band made of granite, indicatings where the cross above the spire throws its shade at mid-day, all round the year; disks mark the spots reached on solstices and equinoxes, as seen in the picture on the right. detail of the sun-dial of the obelisk in St.Peter's Square: → at 11:59 am (standard time) the shadow thrown by the monument almost covers the line that marks its progression at mid-day; the picture was taken just before the winter solstice (December 21 or 22), when the shadow reaches its maximum length, i.e. the white marble disk located at the end of the line

The top of the spire was then fitted with a cross resting over a star and three hills, devices from the coat of arms of Sixtus V. A small fragment from the remains of the Holy Cross was enclosed in the bronze element, probably to 'counterbalance' the old belief about Caesar's ashes.
In 1713 pope Innocent XIII too had his own family device, a crowned eagle, added to the base of the monument.
In 1817 the obelisk was also turned into a sun-dial: the floor on the right (northern) side of the square was inlaid with a thin band made of granite, indicatings where the cross above the spire throws its shade at mid-day, all round the year; disks mark the spots reached on solstices and equinoxes, as seen in the picture on the right.

detail of the sun-dial of the obelisk in St.Peter's Square: →
at 11:59 am (standard time) the shadow thrown by the monument almost covers the line that marks
its progression at mid-day; the picture was taken just before the winter solstice (December 21 or 22),
when the shadow reaches its maximum length, i.e. the white marble disk located at the end of the line

bullets and bullet-holes in the old globe	The old bronze globe was spared from destruction. Up to 1850 it decorated the baluster on Capitolium Hill; it was then taken to the nearby Capitoline Museums, where it is still on display. A curious detail is that its surface is covered with bullets: they were shot by the Lanquenets, the mercenary soldiers of Charles V, who raided the city during the sack of Rome in 1527, and who likely used the globe, in those days still above the obelisk, as a fun target. The obelisk is 25.46 m (83.5 ft) tall; with the base it rests upon it reaches 40.23 m (132 ft).

bullets and bullet-holes in the old globe

The old bronze globe was spared from destruction. Up to 1850 it decorated the baluster on Capitolium Hill; it was then taken to the nearby Capitoline Museums, where it is still on display. A curious detail is that its surface is covered with bullets: they were shot by the Lanquenets, the mercenary soldiers of Charles V, who raided the city during the sack of Rome in 1527, and who likely used the globe, in those days still above the obelisk, as a fun target.

The obelisk is 25.46 m (83.5 ft) tall; with the base it rests upon it reaches 40.23 m (132 ft).

. · 4 · .

full view of the spire, whose many
many missing parts (right) were filled
using parts of the Antonine Column

Another Egyptian obelisk is the one in piazza di Montecitorio, in front of the building that houses Italy's Parliament.

Also this one comes from Heliopolis, and dates back to about year 600 BC; its hieroglyphs mention pharaoh Psamtik II, who had this monument made in honour of god Ra (i.e. the sun), whence the alternative name of the spire, also called 'solar obelisk'.

Emperor Octavianus Augustus had it taken to Rome, where it stood in the northern part of the Campus Martius or Field of Mars, a vast ground for military training and sports, roughly corresponding to the area between the Pantheon, the Capitolium and the river Tiber (see Rione IV). Here the obelisk was used as a huge sundial, to remark its original dedication; it stood over an enormous quadrant of travertine marble, 160 metres long, where dates and hours of the day were marked with bronze notches. It was also strategically positioned so to throw its shadow in the very center of the Altar of Peace on the emperor's birthday, September 23.

It collapsed likely around the 11th century, and was gradually buried under rubble and other remains.

Pope Sixtus V started digging it in the late 1500s, but the obelisk was stood up again no sooner than by the end of the 18th century.

the pharaoh's cartouche and
the sun-dial's notches on the pavement

Another ancient relic was found in this square: the Antonine Column, but all architects who tried to unbury it failed, and the column even remained badly damaged in the attempts. Since the obelisk too was broken in several pieces and many fragments were missing, the column was sacrificed and cut for restoring the lost parts of the Egyptian spire. On the same occasion, a bronze globe with a hole was placed on its top, in order to retrieve the original purpose of the monument: at a given time of the day, a ray of light should have crossed the sphere reaching the notches on the square's pavement, thus marking the date. The new device, though, did not prove very precise.

the bronze globe with a hole

The spire measures 21.80 metres (71.5 feet) in height, 33.27 m (109 ft) including the base and the globe.

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